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| 난징 조약 체결 당시를 묘사한 그림. 영국 군함 콘월리스호(HMS Cornwallis) 내부로, 변발을 한 청나라 측의 인물들과, 군복을 입은 영국 측 인물들이 보인다. |
1. 개요
| 한국어 | 중국어 | 영어 |
| 난징 조약[1] | [ruby(南京, ruby=Nánjīng)][ruby(条约, ruby=tiáoyuē)] [ruby(江宁, ruby=Jiāngníng)][ruby(条约, ruby=tiáoyuē)] | Treaty of Nanjing[2] |
제1차 아편전쟁에서 패배한 청나라가 승리한 영국과 1842년 8월 29일에 맺은 불평등 조약이다.
중국 근ㆍ현대사의 시작을 알린 조약이며, 이후에 체결되는 동아시아 각국들 조약의 원형이 된 조약이다.
청나라는 영국과 굴욕적인 협상을 할 수밖에 없었고, 당시 난징에 정박 중이었던 영국 군함 콘월리스호(HMS Cornwallis)[3]에서 청나라 전권대사 기영(耆英, 1787 ~ 1857)·이리포(伊里布, 1772 ~ 1843)와 영국 전권대사이자 준남작 헨리 포틴저(Henry Pottinger, 1789 ~ 1856)[4]가 이 조약에 조인하였다. 총 13조로 구성되어 있고, 1843년 6월 영국령 홍콩에서 비준서가 교환되었다.
조약 체결 당시 청나라는 도광제의 치세였으며, 영국은 빅토리아 여왕의 치세였다.
2. 내용
한국어로 번역한 대략의 내용은 다음과 같다.| 대영제국 여왕폐하와 대청제국 황제폐하께서는 두 나라 사이에 빚어진 오해와 그에 따른 적대행위에 종지부를 찍고자, 조약을 맺기로 합의하셨다. 이들 전권대사들은, 서로 완전한 권한에 입각한 의사소통을 하고, 적절하고 절차에 맞는 형태로, 다음과 같은 조항에 합의했다. 제1조. 영국과 청나라는 앞으로 영구히 평화와 우정을 누린다.[5] 제2조. 청은 광저우 외에 샤먼(아모이), 푸저우, 닝보, 송호(지금의 상하이)를 개항한다. 제3조. 청은 영국의 편의를 위해 홍콩 섬을 제공하고, 홍콩 섬은 영국의 법률에 따라 통치된다. 제4조. 청은 1839년에 몰수했던 아편의 대금과 이후 영국인들에게 가한 위협의 위자료로 6백만 달러를 배상한다. 제5조. 청은 공행(公行)을 폐지하고, 공행의 채무금 3백만 달러를 지불한다. 제6조. 청은 전쟁배상금으로 1,200만 달러를 지불한다. 제7조. 청은 이상의 총 2,100만 달러 중 6백만 달러는 즉시, 6백만 달러는 1843년까지, 5백만 달러는 1844년까지, 4백만 달러는 1845년까지 지불한다. 제8조. 청은 현재 중국 전역에 감금 중인 모든 영국인[6]을 무조건 석방한다. 제9조. 청은 영국에 협조한 모든 중국인들을 일체 처벌하지 않는다. 제10조. 청은 개항한 5개 항에서 영국인들이 자유롭고 안전하게 생활하도록 보장하며, 공정하고 적절한 관세를 설정한다. 제11조. 영국과 청의 고위 관료들은 해당되는 직급에 맞게 대등하게 교류한다. 제12조. 이 조약 내용을 청국 황제가 승인하고, 최초의 배상금이 지불되는 즉시, 영국군은 난징과 대운하 지역에서 철수한다. 단, 고랑서(鼓浪嶼)와 주산(舟山) 열도의 주둔군은 조약 내용이 모두 이행될 때까지 주둔한다. 제13조. 이 조약문의 원본을 각자의 수도로 가져가 비준하고 교환하며, 그 사이에 그 복사본은 원본과 같은 효과를 갖는다. |
핵심적인 부분을 요약하자면 다음과 같다.
3. 의의와 이후의 동향
청은 이 조약으로 한중일(韓中日) 중 최초로 외세에 굴복하여 무력 개항을 당하게 되었다.[9] 청나라의 양무운동 추진에 영향을 주었다. 이후 일본(에도 막부)가 미국에 굴복하여 두 번째로, 한국(조선)이 일본 제국에 굴복하여 세 번째로 쇄국정책을 폐지하고 개항을 한다. 관세 자주권을 상실하여 식민 지배의 여지를 남긴 채 나라의 문을 열었다는 점도 난징 조약과 동일하다.[10]적잖은 사람들이 오해하는데, 이 1842년 난징 조약은 중국사에서 최초의 근대적 조약이 아니다. 청나라 강희제 때 루스 차르국(러시아)과 맺은 네르친스크 조약과 이후 옹정제 때 러시아 제국과 맺은 캬흐타 조약이 있기 때문이다.
난징 조약을 비롯하여 이후에 맺어지는 여러 열강들과의 조약은 청이 열강과 맺는 불평등조약의 시초가 되어, 영국을 비롯한 유럽 여러 나라들에게 경제·정치·문화·영토면에서 청 침략의 길을 열어주게 되었다. 또한 난징 조약의 체결은 제국주의 열강이 동아시아로 세력을 확대하는 데 본격적인 시발점이 되었다.
이후 청나라는 1843년에 난징 조약의 후속 조약인 후먼 조약(虎門條約, 호문조약)[11]을 영국과 맺었으며, 1844년 7월에는 미국(당시 존 타일러 대통령 집권기)과 왕샤조약(望厦條約, 망하조약)[12]을, 1844년 10월에는 프랑스(당시 7월 왕정 프랑스)와도 황푸조약(黄埔条约, 황포조약)[13]을 각각 체결하게 된다. 그러고도 성이 안찬 유럽 열강은 애로호 사건과 선교사 문제 등을 이유로 또다시 청나라와의 전쟁을 일으키는데, 그것이 바로 제2차 아편전쟁이다.
난징 조약 체결 이후, 청나라의 한족(漢族)들은 태평천국 운동에서 드러나듯 만주족의 지배에 대한 불만을 더더욱 드러내기 시작했다. 조약 체결 당시 조선은 헌종의 치세로, 세도정치기였다. 조선은 연행사[14]를 통해 아편 전쟁과 난징 조약의 체결을 알았지만,
4. 영국 측 원문(原文)
통상적인 현대 영어와 다른 철자는 당대의 철자 표기이며, 오타가 아니다.VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc., etc., etc. To All and Singular to whom these Presents shall come, Greeting ! Whereas a Treaty between Us and Our Good Brother The Emperor of China, was concluded and signed, in the English and Chinese Languages, on board Our Ship the Cornwallis, at Nanking, on the Twenty-ninth day of August, in the Year of Our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and Forty-two, by the Plenipotentiaries of Us and of Our said Good Brother, duly and respectively authorized for that purpose; which Treaty is hereunto annexed in Original.
TREATY
Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, being desirous of putting an end to the misunderstandings and consequent hostilities which have arisen between the two Countries, have resolved to conclude a Treaty for that purpose, and have therefore named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say:
Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, HENRY POTTINGER, Bart., a Major General in the Service of the East India Company, etc., etc.; And His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China, the High Commiasioners KEYING, a Member of the Imperial House, a Guardian of the Crown Prince and General of the Garrison of Canton; and ELEPOO[18], of Imperial Kindred, graciously permitted to wear the insignia of the first rank, and the distinction of Peacock's feather, lately Minister and Governor General etc., and now Lieutenant-General Commanding at Chapoo: Who, after having communicated to each other their respective Full Powers and found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon, and concluded, the following Articles:
ARTICLE I.
There shall henceforward be Peace and Friendship between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their respective Subjects, who shall enjoy full security and protection for their persons and property within the Dominions of the other.
ARTICLE II.
His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees that British Subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their Mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint at the Cities and Towns of Canton, Amoy, Foochow-fu, Ningpo, and Shanghai, and Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., will appoint Superintendents or Consular Officers, to reside at each of the above-named Cities or Towns, to be the medium of communication between the Chinese Authorities and the said Merchants, and to see that the just Duties and other Dues of the Chinese Government is hereafter provided for, are duly discharged by Her Britannic Majesty's Subjects.
ARTICLE III.
It being obviously necessary and desirable, that British Subjects should have some Port whereat they may careen and refit their Ships, when required, and keep Stores for that purpose, His Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., the Island of Hongkong, to be possessed in perpetuity by Her Britannic Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, and to be governed by such Laws and Regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., shall see fit to direct.
ARTICLE IV.
The Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Six Millions of Dollars as the value of Opium which was delivered up at Canton in the month of March 1839, as a Ransom for the lives of Her Britannic Majesty's Superintendent and Subjects, who had been imprisoned and threatened with death by the Chinese High Officers.
ARTICLE V.
The Government of China having compelled the British Merchants trading at Canton to deal exclusively with certain Chinese Merchants called Hong Merchants (or Cohong)[19] who had been licensed by the Chinese Government for that purpose, the Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all Ports where British Merchants may reside, and to permit them to carry on their mercantile transactions with whatever persons they please, and His Imperial Majesty further agrees to pay to the British Government the sum of Three Millions of Dollars, on acoount of Debts due to British Subjects by some of the said Hong Merchants (or Cohong), who have become insolvent, and who owe very large sums of money to Subjects of Her Britannic Majesty.
ARTICLE VI.
The Government of Her Britannic Majesty having been obliged to send out an Expedition to demand and obtain redress for the violent and unjust Proceedings of the Chinese High Authorities towards Her Britannic Majesty's Officer and Subjects, the Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Twelve Millions of Dollars on account of the Expenses incurred, and Her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary voluntarily agrees, on behalf of Her Majesty, to deduct from the said amount of Twelve Millions of Dollars, any sums which may have been received by Her Majesty's combined Forces as Ransom for Cities and Towns in China, subsequent to the 1st day of August 1841.
ARTICLE VII.
It is agreed that the Total amount of Twenty-one Millions of Dollars, described in the three preceding Articles, shall be paid as follows:
Six Millions immediately.
Six Millions in 1843. That is:
Three Millions on or before the 30th of the month of June, and Three Millions on or before the 31St of December.
Five Millions in 1844. That is:
Two Millions and a Half on or before the 30th of June, and Two Millions and a half on or before the 31St of December.
Four Millions in 1845. That is:
Two Millions on or before the 30th of June, and Two Millions on or before the 31 st of December;
and it is further stipulated, that Interest at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, shall be paid by the Government of China on any portions of the above sums that are not punctually discharged at the periods fixed.
ARTICLE VIII.
The Emperor of China agrees to release unconditionally all Subjects of leer Britannic Majesty (whether Natives of Europe or India) who may be in confinement at this moment, in any part of the Chinese Empire.
ARTICLE Ⅸ.
The Emperor of China agrees to publish and promulgate, under His Imperial Sign Manual and Seal, a full and entire amnesty and act of indemnity, to all Subjects of China on account of their having resided under, or having had dealings and intercourse with, or having entered the Service of Her Britannic Majesty, or of Her Majesty's Officers, and His lmperial Majesty further engages to release all Chinese Subjects who may be at this moment in confinement for similar reasons.
ARTICLE X.
His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees to establish at all the Ports which are by the 2nd Article of this Treaty to be thrown open for the resort of British Merchants, a fair and regular Tariff of Export and Import Customs and other Dues, which Tariff shall be publicly notified and promulgated for general information, and the Emperor further engages, that when British Merchandise shall have once paid at any of the said Ports the regulated Customs and Dues agreeable to the Tariff, to be hereafter fixed, such Merchandise may be conveyed by Chinese Merchants, to any Province or City in the interior of the Empire of China on paying a further amount as Transit Duties which shall not exceed per cent. On the tariff value of such goods.
ARTICLE Xl.
It is agreed that Her Britannic Majesty's Chief High Officer in China shall correspond with the Chinese High Officers, both at the Capital and in the Provinces, under the term "Communication" 照會[한문], The Subordinate British Officers and Chinese High Officers in the Provinces under the terms "Statement" 申陳[한문] on the part of the former, and on the part of the latter "Declaration" 劄行[한문], and the Subordinates of both Countries on a footing of perfect equality. Merchants and others not holding official situations and, therefore, not included in the above, on both sides, to use the term "Representation" 禀明[한문] in all Papers addressed to, or intended for the notice of the respective Governments.
ARTICLE XII.
On the assent of the Emperor of China to this Treaty being received and the discharge of the first instalment of money, Her Britannic Majesty's Forces will retire from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and will no longer molest or stop the Trade of China. The Military Post at Chinhai will also be withdrawn, but the Islands of Koolangsoo[24] and that of Chusan[25] will continue to be held by Her Majesty's Forces until the money payments, and the arrangements for opening the Ports to British Merchants be completed.
ARTICLE XIII.
The Ratification of the Treaty by Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., and His Majesty the Emperor of China shall be exchanged as soon as the great distance which separates England from China will admit; but in the meantime counterpart copies of it, signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on behalf of their respective Sovereigns, shall be mutually delivered, and all its provisions and arrangements shall take effect.
Done at Nanking and Signed and Sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on board Her Britannic Majesty's ship Cornwallis, this twenty-ninthday of August, 1842, corresponding with the Chinese date, twenty-fourth day of the seventh month in the twenty-second Year of TAOU KWANG.
전문(全文)은 UCLA(University of California Los Angeles:캘리포니아 대학교 로스앤젤레스),Asia Pacific Center(아시아 태평양 센터)의 자료(#)와 싱가포르 국립대학의 자료(#2)의 내용에서 발췌, 참고, 비교, 보충하였음.TREATY
Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, being desirous of putting an end to the misunderstandings and consequent hostilities which have arisen between the two Countries, have resolved to conclude a Treaty for that purpose, and have therefore named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say:
Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, HENRY POTTINGER, Bart., a Major General in the Service of the East India Company, etc., etc.; And His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China, the High Commiasioners KEYING, a Member of the Imperial House, a Guardian of the Crown Prince and General of the Garrison of Canton; and ELEPOO[18], of Imperial Kindred, graciously permitted to wear the insignia of the first rank, and the distinction of Peacock's feather, lately Minister and Governor General etc., and now Lieutenant-General Commanding at Chapoo: Who, after having communicated to each other their respective Full Powers and found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon, and concluded, the following Articles:
ARTICLE I.
There shall henceforward be Peace and Friendship between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their respective Subjects, who shall enjoy full security and protection for their persons and property within the Dominions of the other.
ARTICLE II.
His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees that British Subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their Mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint at the Cities and Towns of Canton, Amoy, Foochow-fu, Ningpo, and Shanghai, and Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., will appoint Superintendents or Consular Officers, to reside at each of the above-named Cities or Towns, to be the medium of communication between the Chinese Authorities and the said Merchants, and to see that the just Duties and other Dues of the Chinese Government is hereafter provided for, are duly discharged by Her Britannic Majesty's Subjects.
ARTICLE III.
It being obviously necessary and desirable, that British Subjects should have some Port whereat they may careen and refit their Ships, when required, and keep Stores for that purpose, His Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., the Island of Hongkong, to be possessed in perpetuity by Her Britannic Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, and to be governed by such Laws and Regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., shall see fit to direct.
ARTICLE IV.
The Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Six Millions of Dollars as the value of Opium which was delivered up at Canton in the month of March 1839, as a Ransom for the lives of Her Britannic Majesty's Superintendent and Subjects, who had been imprisoned and threatened with death by the Chinese High Officers.
ARTICLE V.
The Government of China having compelled the British Merchants trading at Canton to deal exclusively with certain Chinese Merchants called Hong Merchants (or Cohong)[19] who had been licensed by the Chinese Government for that purpose, the Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all Ports where British Merchants may reside, and to permit them to carry on their mercantile transactions with whatever persons they please, and His Imperial Majesty further agrees to pay to the British Government the sum of Three Millions of Dollars, on acoount of Debts due to British Subjects by some of the said Hong Merchants (or Cohong), who have become insolvent, and who owe very large sums of money to Subjects of Her Britannic Majesty.
ARTICLE VI.
The Government of Her Britannic Majesty having been obliged to send out an Expedition to demand and obtain redress for the violent and unjust Proceedings of the Chinese High Authorities towards Her Britannic Majesty's Officer and Subjects, the Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Twelve Millions of Dollars on account of the Expenses incurred, and Her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary voluntarily agrees, on behalf of Her Majesty, to deduct from the said amount of Twelve Millions of Dollars, any sums which may have been received by Her Majesty's combined Forces as Ransom for Cities and Towns in China, subsequent to the 1st day of August 1841.
ARTICLE VII.
It is agreed that the Total amount of Twenty-one Millions of Dollars, described in the three preceding Articles, shall be paid as follows:
Six Millions immediately.
Six Millions in 1843. That is:
Three Millions on or before the 30th of the month of June, and Three Millions on or before the 31St of December.
Five Millions in 1844. That is:
Two Millions and a Half on or before the 30th of June, and Two Millions and a half on or before the 31St of December.
Four Millions in 1845. That is:
Two Millions on or before the 30th of June, and Two Millions on or before the 31 st of December;
and it is further stipulated, that Interest at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, shall be paid by the Government of China on any portions of the above sums that are not punctually discharged at the periods fixed.
ARTICLE VIII.
The Emperor of China agrees to release unconditionally all Subjects of leer Britannic Majesty (whether Natives of Europe or India) who may be in confinement at this moment, in any part of the Chinese Empire.
ARTICLE Ⅸ.
The Emperor of China agrees to publish and promulgate, under His Imperial Sign Manual and Seal, a full and entire amnesty and act of indemnity, to all Subjects of China on account of their having resided under, or having had dealings and intercourse with, or having entered the Service of Her Britannic Majesty, or of Her Majesty's Officers, and His lmperial Majesty further engages to release all Chinese Subjects who may be at this moment in confinement for similar reasons.
ARTICLE X.
His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees to establish at all the Ports which are by the 2nd Article of this Treaty to be thrown open for the resort of British Merchants, a fair and regular Tariff of Export and Import Customs and other Dues, which Tariff shall be publicly notified and promulgated for general information, and the Emperor further engages, that when British Merchandise shall have once paid at any of the said Ports the regulated Customs and Dues agreeable to the Tariff, to be hereafter fixed, such Merchandise may be conveyed by Chinese Merchants, to any Province or City in the interior of the Empire of China on paying a further amount as Transit Duties which shall not exceed per cent. On the tariff value of such goods.
ARTICLE Xl.
It is agreed that Her Britannic Majesty's Chief High Officer in China shall correspond with the Chinese High Officers, both at the Capital and in the Provinces, under the term "Communication" 照會[한문], The Subordinate British Officers and Chinese High Officers in the Provinces under the terms "Statement" 申陳[한문] on the part of the former, and on the part of the latter "Declaration" 劄行[한문], and the Subordinates of both Countries on a footing of perfect equality. Merchants and others not holding official situations and, therefore, not included in the above, on both sides, to use the term "Representation" 禀明[한문] in all Papers addressed to, or intended for the notice of the respective Governments.
ARTICLE XII.
On the assent of the Emperor of China to this Treaty being received and the discharge of the first instalment of money, Her Britannic Majesty's Forces will retire from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and will no longer molest or stop the Trade of China. The Military Post at Chinhai will also be withdrawn, but the Islands of Koolangsoo[24] and that of Chusan[25] will continue to be held by Her Majesty's Forces until the money payments, and the arrangements for opening the Ports to British Merchants be completed.
ARTICLE XIII.
The Ratification of the Treaty by Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., and His Majesty the Emperor of China shall be exchanged as soon as the great distance which separates England from China will admit; but in the meantime counterpart copies of it, signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on behalf of their respective Sovereigns, shall be mutually delivered, and all its provisions and arrangements shall take effect.
Done at Nanking and Signed and Sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on board Her Britannic Majesty's ship Cornwallis, this twenty-ninthday of August, 1842, corresponding with the Chinese date, twenty-fourth day of the seventh month in the twenty-second Year of TAOU KWANG.
[1] 한국식 한자 독음으로 '南京條約'을 그대로 읽어 '남경 조약'이라고도 한다.[2] 옛 표기 또는 다른 표기로 'Treaty of Nanking'이라고도 부르며, 'Nanjing Treaty'라고 불러도 알아 듣는다.[3] 뱅거급 3급 전열함이다. 건조 중이던 1812년에 미국의 중프리깃 USS 컨스티튜션 함에게 함저에 붙일 구리판을 도난당한 함선으로도 유명하다. 1957년에 해체되었다.[4] 중국식 음차 표기내지는 중국식 이름으로는 砵甸乍(발전작. 현대 표준 중국어 한어병음:Bō diān zhà)이라고 한다. 포틴저는 훗날 영국령 홍콩의 첫 번째 총독이 되었다. 참고로 한국에서는 'Pottinger'를 '포틴저' 말고도 '포팅거'라고 표기하기도 한다. 오늘날 홍콩의 '포팅거 스트리트(Pottinger street, 포팅거 거리)'가 대표적이다.[5] 아무리 그냥 의례적인 우호적 표시라지만 바로 다음 격으로 벌어진 제2차 아편전쟁과 의화단 사건까지 생각하면...[6] 원문에는 유럽인과 인도인을 비롯한 영국 측 인물 전원을 명시했다. 인도인을 명시한 이유는 영국 동인도 회사령 인도 문서로.[7] 영국에 할양된 시기의 홍콩을 '영국령 홍콩'으로 칭한다. 실질적으로 영국이 홍콩을 지배한 건 제1차 아편전쟁 중인 1841년부터였으며, 난징 조약을 통해 홍콩 섬, 1860년 베이징 조약을 통해 구룡반도를 할양받고, 1898년 신계 지역을 조차하여 현재의 홍콩 지역을 지배하게 된다.[8] 公行. 광저우에 존재했던 상인 집단으로, 건륭제 이후 서양과의 무역을 독점한 집단이다. 서양인들은 공행을 통해서만 청과 교역할 수 있었다. 따라서 영국 측에서는 당연히 불편했으며, 공행을 폐지시킨 것이다.[9] 그 후 1854년 일본은 미국과 미일화친조약을, 1858년 미일수호통상조약을 맺었으며, 조선은 1876년에 일본과 강화도조약을 맺으며 근대의 시작을 알렸다.[10] 중국과 한국은 각각 난징 조약과 강화도 조약으로 강제 개항을 하여 점차 영국과 일본에게 예속되며 주권을 심각하게 침해당했다. 일본도 미일화친조약으로 개항한 이후 미국에게 잠식당하며 식민통치될 위기가 있었지만 미국이 곧 남북 전쟁에 돌입하여 일본을 관리할 여력이 없어지자 그러한 정세를 십분 활용하여 미국의 간섭으로부터 벗어나 자주적인 근대화의 길을 나아갈 수가 있었다. 근대화 성공의 이유를 오로지 여기서만 찾을 수는 없지만 국내 정세가 안정적이고 당대 초강대국이던 대영제국에게 간섭당한 중국, 바로 이웃나라인 일본에게 간섭당한 한국과 비교하자면 일본은 비교적 시대적인 운도 따라주었던 측면이 있는 셈이다.[11] 후먼(호문)은 지금의 광둥성 있는 소도시[12] 왕샤(망하)는 지금의 마카오 왕샤촌(망하촌)을 말한다.[13] 황푸는 지금의 광둥성 광저우시 황푸구으로 후일에 황포군관학교가 세워진다.[14] 2019년 6월 현재 나무위키에 해당 별도 문서가 없다. '연행사(燕行使)'는 조선 후기에 조선에서 청나라로 파견한 사신단을 의미하는 것으로, 청나라의 수도인 연경(燕京, 현 베이징)으로 간 사신(使臣)들을 의미한다. 조선 인조 15년(1637년)부터 고종 30년(1893년)까지 파견되었다.[15] 참고로 조선은 흥선대원군의 실권기 이전 세도정치기때도 통상수교거부정책(쇄국정책)을 고수했다.[16] 여러 중대한 요인들이 있으나, 이 짧지만 짧지 않은 차이는 19세기-20세기 초 한국과 일본의 운명을 크게 가른다. 메이지 유신 문서로.[17] 자국 중심적인 세계관은 여러 북방민족국가와 한국, 일본뿐만이 아닌 세계 어디에나 있으나, 중화사상과 화이관은 한족에게서 시작된 특징이므로 한족을 적어놓음.[18] 본 문서의 개요에서 설명한, 청나라 측의 전권대사였던 인물 '이리포(伊里布)'를 의미한다. 참고로 현대 영어로 이리포는 'Elepoo'가 아닌 'Yilibu'로 표기하는 추세다.[19] 여기서 'Hong Merchants' 또는 'Cohong'은 모두 공행(公行)을 지칭한다. 2019년 현재 공행에 대한 별개 문서가 없으므로, 하이퍼링크 대신 각주로 서술함. 참고로 공행 무역을 영어로는 'Canton system'으로 부른다. 한국어 위키백과 등지에서도 이 명칭을 그대로 번역해 '광동 체제'라고 부르기도 한다.[한문] 양국끼리 문서가 오갈 때의 용어 선택을 규정하는 조항이기 때문에 영단어를 한문으로 번역하여 옆에 표기했다.[한문] [한문] [한문] [24] 샤먼시(아모이)에 위치한 섬 鼓浪嶼(구랑위. 간체자:鼓浪屿, 현대 영어 표기:Gulangyu Island, 한국식 한자 독음:고랑서)를 의미한다.[25] 주산시에 위치한 섬인 舟山島(저우샨다오. 간체자:舟山岛, 현대 영어 표기: Zhoushan Island, 한국식 한자 독음: 주산도)를 의미한다. 여담으로 오늘날 주산도에는 아편전쟁기념관이 위치해 있다.